Geology of East Africa
With contributions by Craig Hampton
1997. XII , 484 pages, 191 figures, 15 tables, 25x17cm, 1250 g
Language: English
(Beiträge zur regionalen Geologie der Erde, Band 27)
ISBN 978-3-443-11027-7, bound, price: 99.80 €
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Contents
English descr/flyer text
Review: Z. Geomorph. 43,1 (1999)
Review: Palaeoecology of Africa, vol. 26, 1999
Rev.: Géochronique, Déc. 1999, no. 72, p. 39
Contents
English descr/flyer text
Review: Z. Geomorph. 43,1 (1999)
Review: Palaeoecology of Africa, vol. 26, 1999
Rev.: Géochronique, Déc. 1999, no. 72, p. 39
Contents
This new volume on the Geology of East Africa provides a
concise account of the multi-faceted regional geology and
stratigraphy of East Africa, that is Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
Much of the data presented, however, is highly relevant to the
surrounding countries and regions as well.
The contrasting landforms of East Africa, mountains on one side, plateaux, low plains, and rift valleys on the other, with deep fertile soils are reflected in its geology.
East Africa's geological features, from Precambrian basement, the paleontology and geology of the sedimentary series overlying it, to the structural evolution and volcanic history of the East Africa Rift System, are discussed in detail as are the metamorphic history e.g. of the Ubendian and Usgaran belts. A separate section presents the record of hominid evolution from the East African Rift System (Olduvai gorge). See the table of contents above for further details about topics covered.
Much of the progress since J.W. Gregory's groundbreaking account of the ``Great Rift Valley'' (1896) has not been comprehensively summarized since. The centennial of the publication of Gregory's book shaped the desire to provide both a textbook and at the same time an indispensable reference summarizing new scientific studies carried out since 1896.
The contrasting landforms of East Africa, mountains on one side, plateaux, low plains, and rift valleys on the other, with deep fertile soils are reflected in its geology.
East Africa's geological features, from Precambrian basement, the paleontology and geology of the sedimentary series overlying it, to the structural evolution and volcanic history of the East Africa Rift System, are discussed in detail as are the metamorphic history e.g. of the Ubendian and Usgaran belts. A separate section presents the record of hominid evolution from the East African Rift System (Olduvai gorge). See the table of contents above for further details about topics covered.
Much of the progress since J.W. Gregory's groundbreaking account of the ``Great Rift Valley'' (1896) has not been comprehensively summarized since. The centennial of the publication of Gregory's book shaped the desire to provide both a textbook and at the same time an indispensable reference summarizing new scientific studies carried out since 1896.
Professionals and students, intending to delve into the details of the geological history of that region will appreciate the present volume as a stepping-stone, paving the way to additional studies of the numerous references given in this work.
East Africa is an area of remarkable geomorphological appeal. It
contains the highest mountains in Africa, some of the world's largest
lakes, extensive areas of current and past volcanic activity,
magnificent rifts, and crucial evidence for climatic change and human
evolution. Curiously, therefore, over one hundred years has passed
since the last comprehensive attempt to summarize the geology of East
Africa, undertaken by J. W. Gregory in 1896. Schlüter's magisterial
overview is therefore very welcome, not least because it contains much
material which will be of interest both to Quaternary scientists and to
geomorphologists. That said it is fundamentally a survey of geology,
with a great deal of stratigraphic and tectonostratigraphic material
going back to the Precambrian and the Proterozoic. Nevertheless, not
far short of half of the book deals with the history and development
of the rift systems and associated volcanoes. Among the topics that
will particularly appeal to geomorphologists are: sea level changes
along the coast of the Indian Ocean, the physiography and faulting
mechanics of the rifts, the ages and forms of the main types of
volcano, and the nature of the sidements of the main lake
basins. Given the large amount of work that has been done on these
topics in recent years, and the new concepts that have arisen,
particularly with regard to the evolution of rifts, this comprehensive
survey is extremely timely. The only curious omission is that there is
no real attempt to synthesise the work that has been done on
Quaternary climatic changes, involving the analysis and interpretation
of cores from lakes and swamps, such as those on the flanks of Mount
Kenya.
This is a well illustrated book, with extensive referencing, and an impressive collection of indexes. It will for long be a fundamental resource for those concerned with one of the most remarkable geomorphological regions on the face of the Earth.
The first summarising publication on the geology of East Africa, 'The
Great Rift Valley' (1896, J. Murray, London) was written by
J.W. Gregory. During the last century, tremendous progress has been
achieved in geology, palaeontology and sedimentology. However, until
now, a modern comprehensive presentation of the subject has not been
available in a single volume. With this volume the author and
publisher intend to provide a general textbook as well as a source of
referenceThe first summarising publication on the geology of East Africa, 'The
Great Rift Valley' (1896, J. Murray, London) was written by
J.W. Gregory. During the last century, tremendous progress has been
achieved in geology, palaeontology and sedimentology. However, until
now, a modern comprehensive presentation of the subject has not been
available in a single volume. With this volume the author and
publisher intend to provide a general textbook as well as a source of
references for students, university teachers and interesting scientist
from various related disciplines and even for the interested
layperson. The Geology of East Africa provides an account of the
multi-faceted regional geology and stratigraphy of Kenya, Tanzania and
Uganda, but much of the data presented is highly relevant to the
surrounding regions as well.
For geologists, East Africa is an exciting area for scientific
research Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda cover an area of more than 1.75
million square kilometres, including the highest mountains of Africa
and some of the largest lakes on earth. Some areas are very arid,
others quite humid. Temperate highlands are close to hot savannas. A
mosiac of rich and poor soils is found in many regions. East Africa's
geological and tectonic features, from Precambrian basement, the
palaeontology and geology of the sedimentary series overlying it, to
the structural evolution and volcanic history of the great Rift
System, are discussed in detail as are the metamorphic development,
for example, of the Ubendian, Usgaran and Kibaran belts. A separate
chapter presents the record of hominid evolution from the East
African Rift System. The book is a compilation and explanation of the
manifold of the geologic-tectonic landscapes of East Africa.
The book is divided into chapters following stratigraphic aspects
(Precambrium, p. 15-141; Karoo, p. 142-199; Coastal Meso- and
Cenozoic, p. 200- 264) and the importance of the East African Rift
System (EARS) for all environmental investigations of the region
(Structural Evolution of the EARS, p. 265-301; Upper Phanerozoic
Volcanism Related to the EARS, p. 302-346; Cenozoic of the EARS,
p. 347-410). Indexes of subjects, fossils and places and the 61 pages
(!) with more than 1600 references allow the reader to get the
information he is looking for. The appeal of the book lies in its
clear, thoughtful, and systematic presentation of the subject
matter.
Schlüter's emphasis is to summarise the entire body of research on the
geology of East Africa, considering the literature published in
different languages (English, German, French) until 1995. Therefore,
the book will be most valuable for all Quaternary and environmental
scientists interested in East Africa. The readers of Palaeoecology of
Africa will appreciate the introductions to every region and every
subject. Terms are defined and commented, and preferred usage is
explained where necessary. Concepts are questioned as well as
explained, and popular misconceptions pointed out. This critical
approach is refreshing and particularly valuable in a textbook like
this, which should aim at fostering a critical attitude as well as
knowledge. The readers of Palaeoecology of Africa also will appreciate
the condensed chapters of the Neogene in general and on the Cenozoic
of the EARS presenting concise summaries of the sedimentation, the
geomorphology, the environment, the biostratigraphy and the
palaeontology. The various lakes and lake basins as well as places of
interest like the Olduvai Gorge, the Koobi Fora region or the Laetoli
site are dealt with in special chapters.
This book forms a substantial and important contribution to our
knowledge of the East African geology and should be read by everyone
active in the field of East African earth sciences, as well as
environmental specialists in other fields.
Prof. Dr. Klaus Heine
"Palaeoecology of Africa", Vol. 26 (1999)
Comme l'explique le Pr.T. Schlüter dans sa préface, ce livre est un
essai destiné à fournir une vision d'ensemble de la géologie de
l'Afrique de l'Est, plus précisément du Kenya, de la Tanzanie et de
l'Ouganda. Actuellement enseignant à l'Université du Swaziland,
l'auteur, comme plusieurs géologues de l'Afrique, a été motivé par le
désir de donner, d'abord aux étudiants africains puis à tous les
chercheurs susceptibles de venir travailler dans ces pays, un cadre
clair pour commencer leurs travaux. Cet ouvrage de 484 pages a donc la
structure d'un cours très complet, bien structuré et qui permet
d'accéder facilement à des thèmes particuliers pour le lecteur qui ne
voudrait lire que ce qui le concerne. De plus, pour chaque grande
époque, un paragraphe de géologie appliquée fait le lien avec les
données synthétiques régionales.
Après un chapitre d'introduction où l'historique des recherches antérieures est largement détaillé, six chapitres traitent successivement du Précambrien, du système du Karoo (Carbonifère supérieur à Jurassique), du Méso-Cénozoique et du Quaternaire, du système des grands rifts est-africains, du volcanisme lié aux rifts et du Cénozoique des rifts. Dans ce dernier chapitre l'auteur aborde plus en détail l'environnement géologique des premiers australopithèques. Enfin quatre chapitres comprennent les références citées, les sujets abordés, un index des fossiles et un index des localités.
Avec 159 pages, le chapitre sur le Précambrien est de loin le plus important. L'exposé est clair et distingue bien les données souvent fragmentaires et les différentes hypothèses envisagées par les chercheurs. On pourra regretter la relative pauvreté des cartes, mais il faut savoir que les confins du Kenya et de l'Ouganda vers la frontière du Soudan et de la R.C.A sont encore actuellement parmi les plus mal connues d'Afrique. Dans cette région, personne n'est capable de définir les relations entre Paléoprotérozoique et Kibarien ni de préciser comment se traduit le cycle Pan-Africain. Par contre l'exposé sur le Bubokien (Néoprotérozoique tabulaire) fait bien ressortir la fin de la saturation du Gondwana, entre 700 et 500 Ma dans l'Est Africain.
En ce qui concerne le système des grands rifts, l'auteur a confié la rédaction des deux chapitres qui leurs sont consacrés à C. Hampton. Tous les aspects de ces structures et de leur évolution sont abordés, et l'intérêt de la synthèse proposée dépasse largement le cadre régional. Les nombreux chercheurs qui utilisent si facilement le modèle des rifts dans leurs reconstructions géodynamiques gagneraient beaucoup en revenant aux descriptions structuraies et pétrologiques de ce domaine souvent bien méconnu.
Par la clarté de son exposé, et l'accessibilité à toutes les échelles
de l'information contenue dans ce volume, T. Schlüter a parfaitement
réussi son pari de fournir aux géologues travaillant en Afrique une
base de travail destinée à ouvrir la route au nombreuses recherches
encore nécessaires à la compréhension de l'Est Africain.
L. LATOUCHE
Géochronique, Déc. 1999, no. 72, p. 39
Preface V
1. Introduction (TH.SCHLÜTER) 1
1.1 Geographical Setting 1
1.2 Historical Review of Geological Research 2
1.3 Stratigraphic Approach 9
1.4 Tectonostratigraphic Synopsis 9
2. Precambrian (TH.SCHLÜTER) 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Archaean of the Tanzania Craton - the Dodoman, Nyanzian and
Kavirondian Systems 19
2.21 Dodoman System (Schist Belt and Surrounding Granitoid
Rocks) 21
2.211 Lithology and Structure 21
2.212 Origin 21
2.213 Geochronology 22
2.22 Nyanzian System 22
2.221 Lithology, Metamorphism and Structure 23
2.222 Genetic Aspects of Gold and Other Mineralisation 28
2.223 Geochronology 30
2.23 Kavirondian System 31
2.231 Kenya 31
2.232 Tanzania 32
2.233 Uganda 33
2.3 Meso- and Neoarchaean and Subsequent Proterozoic Evolution in
Northern Uganda- the Basement or Gneissic-Granulitic Complex 33
2.31 Nomenclature 34
2.32 Lithology 34
2.33 Structure 35
2.34 Metamorphism 36
2.35 Subdivisions 37
2.36 Origin 39
2.37 Geochronology 39
2.38 Comparison and Stratigraphic Correlation with Neighbouring
Areas 40
2.4 Palaeoproterozoic in Uganda - the Buganda-Toro System or Ruwenzori
Fold Belt 40
2.41 Buganda Group of Central and Eastern Uganda 42
2.411 Lithology 42
2.412 Subdivisions 42
2.413 Structure 43
2.414 Geochronology 44
2.42 Toro Supergroup of Western Uganda 44
2.421 Relationship with the Buganda Group 44
2.422 Subdivisions and their Lithology 45
2.423 The Toro Supergroup in the Ruwenzori Mountains 45
2.424 Stratigraphy and Mineralization of the Kilembe Ore
Body 48
2.425 Structure 52
2.426 Geochronology 53
2.5 Palaeoproterozoic in Tanzania - the Ubendian and Usagaran Belts 54
2.51 Ubendian Belt 54
2.511 Subdivisions and their Lithology 55
2.512 Metamorphism 57
2.513 Structure 57
2.514 Gold and Other Mineralization 58
2.515 Geochronology 60
2.52 Usagaran Belt (Including Ndembera Series) 61
2.521 Subdivisions 62
2.522 Metamorphism and Structural Deformation G4
2.523 Geochronology 65
2.524 Geotectonic Evolution 67
2.6 Mesoproterozoic of Tanzania and Uganda- the Kibaran Belt or Iaragwe
Ankolean System 67
2.61 Extent and Subdivisions of the Kibaran Belt 69
2.611 Lithostratigraphy in Tanzania71
2.612 Nomenclature 73
2.613 Lithostratigraphy in Uganda 76
2.614 Key Areas77
2.62 Granitic Intrusions 79
2.621 Arenas 79
2.622 Syn- and Post-Orogenic Granites 81
2.623 The Term "Rheomorphism" as an Explanation Model . 83
2.63 Structural Setting 84
2.64 Metamorphism 86
2.65 Mineralization 86
2.651 Mineralization Syngenetic with the Iiaragwe Ankolean
Sediments 87
2.652 Mineralization Associated with the Mafic/Ultramafic
Intrusions 87
2.653 Mineralization Associated with the Tin Granites 87
2.66 Geochronology 92
2.67 Geotectonic Evolution 93
2.7 Tabular Neoproterozoic - the BuLoban System and Related Formations 95
2.71 Subdivisions and their Lithology 97
2.711 Tanzania 97
2.712 Kenya 104
2.713 Uganda 105
2.72 Palaeontology 109
2.73 Structure 110
2.74 Volcanism 110
2.75 Geochronology 111
2.8 Neoproterozoic of the Mozambique Belt in Kenya, Tanzania and
Tganda 111
2.81 Concepts and Persistent Controversies 114
2.82 Ophiolites 116
2.83 Regional Setting 117
2.831 Kenya 118
2.832 Tanzania 123
2.833 Uganda 129
2.84 Gemstone Mineralizations 131
2.85 Geochronology 136
2.86 Geotectonic Evolution and Palaeogeography 139
Karoo (TH. SCHLÜTER) 142
3.1 Introduction 142
3.2 Tanzania 143
3.21 Rubuhu Basin 145
3.211 K1: Basal Conglomerates or Idusi Formation 148
3.212 K2: Lower Coal Measures or Mchuchuma Formation . 150
3.213 K3 : Intermediate Sandstones and Mudstones or
Mbuyura Formation 151
3.214 K4: Upper Coal Measures or Mhukuru Formation 153
3.215 K5: Ruhubu Beds or Rubuhu Formation 153
3.216 K6: Lower Bone Bed or Usili Formation 154
3.217 K7: Kingori Sandstone 155
3.218 K8: Upper Bone Bed or Manda Beds 155
3.22 Tukuyu and Rukwa Basins 156
3.23 Luwegu Basin (= Rufiji or Selous Basin) Including Ruvu, Mvuha,
Mikumi and Nyakatitu Subbasins 158
3.231 Luwegu Basin Sensu Stricto 160
3.232 Ruvu and Mvuha Subbasins 167
3.233 Mikumi and Nyakatitu Subbasins 169
3.24 Tanga Basin 172
3.3 Iienya 174
3.31 Mombasa Basin 174
3.311 Taru Formation 175
3.312 Maji ya Chumvi Formation 177
3.313 Mariakani Formation 178
3.314 Matolani Formation 179
3.315 Mazeras Formation 179
3.32 Mandera Basin 180
3.321 Mansa Guda Formation 180
3.4 Uganda 182
3.41 Entebbe 183
3.42 Dagusi Island 184
3.43 Bugiri 185
3.5 Palaeontology 186
3.51 Stromatolites 186
3.52 Macroflora and Palynomorpha 186
3.53 Mollusca 188
3.54 Arthropoda 188
3.55 Vertebrata 189
3.6 Volcanism 190
3.7 Permo/Carboniferous Gondwana Glaciation 192
3.8 Structural Development 195
3.9 Hydrocarbon Exploration 198
4. Meso- and Cenozoic of Coastal East Africa (TH.SCHLÜTER) 200
4.1 Introduction 200
4.2 Jurassic 200
4.21 Tanzania 201
4.211 Lower Jurassic ? 202
4.212 Middle Jurassic 204
4.213 Middle and Upper Jurassic 207
4.214 Upper Jurassic 208
4.215 Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous 208
4.22 Kenya 213
4.221 Mandera Basin 213
4.222 Mombasa Basin 218
4.223 Central Kenya 220
4.23 Palaeontology 220
4.231 Macroflora and Palynomorpha 220
4.232 Invertebrates 221
4.233 Fauna and Palaenenvironment of Tendaguru 222
4.24 Structural Development and Plate Tectonics 223
4.25 Economic Aspects 225
4.3 Cretaceous 226
4.31 Tanzania 226
4.311 Lower Cretaceous 227
4.312 Upper Cretaceous 231
4.32 Kenya 234
4.321 Mandera Basin 234
4.322 Mombasa Basin 236
4.33 Palaeontology 237
4.331 Macroflora and Palynomorpha 237
4.332 Invertebrates 237
4.333 "Flysch"-Ichnocenosis of Kilwa 239
4.34 Structural Development 240
4.4 Tertiary 240
4.41 Mainland Tanzania 241
4.411 Paleogene 241
4.412 Neogene 242
4.42 Islands of Tanzania 245
4.421 Zanzibar 246
4.422 Pemba 248
4.423 Mafia 250
4.43 Iienya 253
4.431 Mandera Basin 253
4.432 Lamu Embayment 253
4.44 Palaeontology 255
4.45 Structural Development 256
4.46 Sea Level Changes 257
4.47 Economic Aspects 258
4.5 Quaternary 259
4.51 Tanzania 259
4.511 Pleistocene 259
4.512 Eustatic Sea Level Changes 261
4.52 Kenya 262
4.521 Coral Reef Complex 262
4.522 Pleistocene Sand Formations 262
4.523 Beach Sands 262
4.524 Sea Level Changes and Marine Terraces 263
4.53 Economic Aspects 264
5. Structural Evolution of the East African Rift System (EARS)
(C. HAMPTON) 265
5.1 Introduction 265
5.2 Physiography 265
5.3 Nature of the Faulting 266
5.4 Fault Mechanisms 268
5.5 Geophysics 271
5.51 Seismicity of East Africa 271
5.52 Gravity Studies 278
5.53 Other Geophysical Studies 280
5.6 Extension and Stress 280
5.7 Basement Control of the EARS 283
5.8 Tectonic History of the EARS 287
5.81 Gregory Rift 287
5.811 Phase 1: Miocene Faulting 289
5.812 Phase 2: Late Miocene-Pliocene Faulting 289
5.813 Phase 3: Late Pliocene-Pleistocene Faulting 291
5.82 Western Rift 292
5.9 Mechanisms for Forming the EARS 294
6. Upper Phanerozoic Volcanism Related to the EARS (C. HAMPTON) 302
6.1 Introduction 302
6.2 Petrographic Provinces 302
6.3 Geomorphology of the Volcanoes 303
6.4 Uganda 303
6.41 Eastern Uganda 304
6.42 Age Determinations and Relations 307
6.43 Western Uganda 308
6.431 Fort Portal and Kaskere Field 309
6.432 Ndale Field 310
6.433 Central Fields of Katwe-Kikorongo and Bunyaruguru 310
6.434 Bufumbira Volcanic Field 311
6.44 Age Determinations and Relations 313
6.45 Hot Springs 313
6.5 Tanzania 313
6.51 Northern Volcanic Field 314
6.511 Older Volcanics 315
6.512 Younger Volcanics 316
6.52 Eastern Carbonatites 318
6.53 Western Carbonatites 319
6.54 Rungwe Volcanic Field and Southwestern Carbonatites 319
6.55 Kimberlites 322
6.56 Hot Springs 324
6.57 Age Determinations and Relations 325
6.6 Kenya 325
6.61 Petrology 327
6.62 Western Flank 328
6.621 Oligocene 328
6.622 Miocene 328
6.623 Late Miocene-Pliocene 331
6.624 Quaternary 332
6.63 Eastern Flank 333
6.631 Oligocene 333
6.632 Miocene 333
6.633 Pliocene 336
6.634 Quaternary 337
6.64 NIedian Rift 338
6.641 Turkana 338
6.642 Baringo 339
6.643 Nakuru-Naivasha 339
6.644 Magadi 342
6.65 I(avirondo Rift 343
6.66 Hot Springs and Fumaroles 345
6.67 Other Mesozoic-Cenozaic Igneous Rocks 345
Em. Cenozoic of the East African Rift System (EARS) (TH. SCHLÜTER) 347
7.1 Sedimentation and Environment 347
7.11 Introduction 347
7.12 Gregory Rift 352
7.121 Lake Turkana Basin 352
7.122 Chalbi Basin 357
7.123 Suguta Basin 358
7.124 Lake Baringo and Lake Bogoria Basins 359
7.125 Lake Naivasha-Elmenteita-Nakuru Basin 362
7.126 Lake Magadi-Lake Natron Basin 363
7.127 Lake Manyara Basin 369
7.128 Olduvai 371
7.129 Laetoli 374
7.1210 Lake Eyasi Basin 376
7.13 Western Rift 376
7.131 Lake Albert Basin 376
7.132 Lake Edward and Lake George Basins 378
7.133 Lake Tanganyika Basin 380
7.134 Lake Rukwa Basin 381
7.135 Lake Malawi (Nyasa) Basin 382
7.14 Lake Victoria Basin 383
7.141 Geological Setting 383
7.142 Lake Victoria 384
7.2 Biostratigraphy and Palaeontology 386
7.21 Mode of Fossilisation in the EARS 386
7.22 Stromatolites 388
7.23 Diatoms 390
7.24 Macroflora and Palynomorpha 391
7.25 Mollusca 392
7.26 Arthropoda 393
7.27 Vertebrata 394
7.271 Pisces 394
7.272 Amphibia and Reptilia 395
7.273 Aves 395
7.274 Mammalia (except Hominoidea) 396
7.275 Fossil Record of Hominoidea in the EARS 403
7.28 Trace Fossils 409
8. References 411
9. Subject Index 463
10. Index of Fossils 471
11. Localities Index 475
1. Introduction (TH.SCHLÜTER) 1
1.1 Geographical Setting 1
1.2 Historical Review of Geological Research 2
1.3 Stratigraphic Approach 9
1.4 Tectonostratigraphic Synopsis 9
2. Precambrian (TH.SCHLÜTER) 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Archaean of the Tanzania Craton - the Dodoman, Nyanzian and
Kavirondian Systems 19
2.21 Dodoman System (Schist Belt and Surrounding Granitoid
Rocks) 21
2.211 Lithology and Structure 21
2.212 Origin 21
2.213 Geochronology 22
2.22 Nyanzian System 22
2.221 Lithology, Metamorphism and Structure 23
2.222 Genetic Aspects of Gold and Other Mineralisation 28
2.223 Geochronology 30
2.23 Kavirondian System 31
2.231 Kenya 31
2.232 Tanzania 32
2.233 Uganda 33
2.3 Meso- and Neoarchaean and Subsequent Proterozoic Evolution in
Northern Uganda- the Basement or Gneissic-Granulitic Complex 33
2.31 Nomenclature 34
2.32 Lithology 34
2.33 Structure 35
2.34 Metamorphism 36
2.35 Subdivisions 37
2.36 Origin 39
2.37 Geochronology 39
2.38 Comparison and Stratigraphic Correlation with Neighbouring
Areas 40
2.4 Palaeoproterozoic in Uganda - the Buganda-Toro System or Ruwenzori
Fold Belt 40
2.41 Buganda Group of Central and Eastern Uganda 42
2.411 Lithology 42
2.412 Subdivisions 42
2.413 Structure 43
2.414 Geochronology 44
2.42 Toro Supergroup of Western Uganda 44
2.421 Relationship with the Buganda Group 44
2.422 Subdivisions and their Lithology 45
2.423 The Toro Supergroup in the Ruwenzori Mountains 45
2.424 Stratigraphy and Mineralization of the Kilembe Ore
Body 48
2.425 Structure 52
2.426 Geochronology 53
2.5 Palaeoproterozoic in Tanzania - the Ubendian and Usagaran Belts 54
2.51 Ubendian Belt 54
2.511 Subdivisions and their Lithology 55
2.512 Metamorphism 57
2.513 Structure 57
2.514 Gold and Other Mineralization 58
2.515 Geochronology 60
2.52 Usagaran Belt (Including Ndembera Series) 61
2.521 Subdivisions 62
2.522 Metamorphism and Structural Deformation G4
2.523 Geochronology 65
2.524 Geotectonic Evolution 67
2.6 Mesoproterozoic of Tanzania and Uganda- the Kibaran Belt or Iaragwe
Ankolean System 67
2.61 Extent and Subdivisions of the Kibaran Belt 69
2.611 Lithostratigraphy in Tanzania71
2.612 Nomenclature 73
2.613 Lithostratigraphy in Uganda 76
2.614 Key Areas77
2.62 Granitic Intrusions 79
2.621 Arenas 79
2.622 Syn- and Post-Orogenic Granites 81
2.623 The Term "Rheomorphism" as an Explanation Model . 83
2.63 Structural Setting 84
2.64 Metamorphism 86
2.65 Mineralization 86
2.651 Mineralization Syngenetic with the Iiaragwe Ankolean
Sediments 87
2.652 Mineralization Associated with the Mafic/Ultramafic
Intrusions 87
2.653 Mineralization Associated with the Tin Granites 87
2.66 Geochronology 92
2.67 Geotectonic Evolution 93
2.7 Tabular Neoproterozoic - the BuLoban System and Related Formations 95
2.71 Subdivisions and their Lithology 97
2.711 Tanzania 97
2.712 Kenya 104
2.713 Uganda 105
2.72 Palaeontology 109
2.73 Structure 110
2.74 Volcanism 110
2.75 Geochronology 111
2.8 Neoproterozoic of the Mozambique Belt in Kenya, Tanzania and
Tganda 111
2.81 Concepts and Persistent Controversies 114
2.82 Ophiolites 116
2.83 Regional Setting 117
2.831 Kenya 118
2.832 Tanzania 123
2.833 Uganda 129
2.84 Gemstone Mineralizations 131
2.85 Geochronology 136
2.86 Geotectonic Evolution and Palaeogeography 139
Karoo (TH. SCHLÜTER) 142
3.1 Introduction 142
3.2 Tanzania 143
3.21 Rubuhu Basin 145
3.211 K1: Basal Conglomerates or Idusi Formation 148
3.212 K2: Lower Coal Measures or Mchuchuma Formation . 150
3.213 K3 : Intermediate Sandstones and Mudstones or
Mbuyura Formation 151
3.214 K4: Upper Coal Measures or Mhukuru Formation 153
3.215 K5: Ruhubu Beds or Rubuhu Formation 153
3.216 K6: Lower Bone Bed or Usili Formation 154
3.217 K7: Kingori Sandstone 155
3.218 K8: Upper Bone Bed or Manda Beds 155
3.22 Tukuyu and Rukwa Basins 156
3.23 Luwegu Basin (= Rufiji or Selous Basin) Including Ruvu, Mvuha,
Mikumi and Nyakatitu Subbasins 158
3.231 Luwegu Basin Sensu Stricto 160
3.232 Ruvu and Mvuha Subbasins 167
3.233 Mikumi and Nyakatitu Subbasins 169
3.24 Tanga Basin 172
3.3 Iienya 174
3.31 Mombasa Basin 174
3.311 Taru Formation 175
3.312 Maji ya Chumvi Formation 177
3.313 Mariakani Formation 178
3.314 Matolani Formation 179
3.315 Mazeras Formation 179
3.32 Mandera Basin 180
3.321 Mansa Guda Formation 180
3.4 Uganda 182
3.41 Entebbe 183
3.42 Dagusi Island 184
3.43 Bugiri 185
3.5 Palaeontology 186
3.51 Stromatolites 186
3.52 Macroflora and Palynomorpha 186
3.53 Mollusca 188
3.54 Arthropoda 188
3.55 Vertebrata 189
3.6 Volcanism 190
3.7 Permo/Carboniferous Gondwana Glaciation 192
3.8 Structural Development 195
3.9 Hydrocarbon Exploration 198
4. Meso- and Cenozoic of Coastal East Africa (TH.SCHLÜTER) 200
4.1 Introduction 200
4.2 Jurassic 200
4.21 Tanzania 201
4.211 Lower Jurassic ? 202
4.212 Middle Jurassic 204
4.213 Middle and Upper Jurassic 207
4.214 Upper Jurassic 208
4.215 Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous 208
4.22 Kenya 213
4.221 Mandera Basin 213
4.222 Mombasa Basin 218
4.223 Central Kenya 220
4.23 Palaeontology 220
4.231 Macroflora and Palynomorpha 220
4.232 Invertebrates 221
4.233 Fauna and Palaenenvironment of Tendaguru 222
4.24 Structural Development and Plate Tectonics 223
4.25 Economic Aspects 225
4.3 Cretaceous 226
4.31 Tanzania 226
4.311 Lower Cretaceous 227
4.312 Upper Cretaceous 231
4.32 Kenya 234
4.321 Mandera Basin 234
4.322 Mombasa Basin 236
4.33 Palaeontology 237
4.331 Macroflora and Palynomorpha 237
4.332 Invertebrates 237
4.333 "Flysch"-Ichnocenosis of Kilwa 239
4.34 Structural Development 240
4.4 Tertiary 240
4.41 Mainland Tanzania 241
4.411 Paleogene 241
4.412 Neogene 242
4.42 Islands of Tanzania 245
4.421 Zanzibar 246
4.422 Pemba 248
4.423 Mafia 250
4.43 Iienya 253
4.431 Mandera Basin 253
4.432 Lamu Embayment 253
4.44 Palaeontology 255
4.45 Structural Development 256
4.46 Sea Level Changes 257
4.47 Economic Aspects 258
4.5 Quaternary 259
4.51 Tanzania 259
4.511 Pleistocene 259
4.512 Eustatic Sea Level Changes 261
4.52 Kenya 262
4.521 Coral Reef Complex 262
4.522 Pleistocene Sand Formations 262
4.523 Beach Sands 262
4.524 Sea Level Changes and Marine Terraces 263
4.53 Economic Aspects 264
5. Structural Evolution of the East African Rift System (EARS)
(C. HAMPTON) 265
5.1 Introduction 265
5.2 Physiography 265
5.3 Nature of the Faulting 266
5.4 Fault Mechanisms 268
5.5 Geophysics 271
5.51 Seismicity of East Africa 271
5.52 Gravity Studies 278
5.53 Other Geophysical Studies 280
5.6 Extension and Stress 280
5.7 Basement Control of the EARS 283
5.8 Tectonic History of the EARS 287
5.81 Gregory Rift 287
5.811 Phase 1: Miocene Faulting 289
5.812 Phase 2: Late Miocene-Pliocene Faulting 289
5.813 Phase 3: Late Pliocene-Pleistocene Faulting 291
5.82 Western Rift 292
5.9 Mechanisms for Forming the EARS 294
6. Upper Phanerozoic Volcanism Related to the EARS (C. HAMPTON) 302
6.1 Introduction 302
6.2 Petrographic Provinces 302
6.3 Geomorphology of the Volcanoes 303
6.4 Uganda 303
6.41 Eastern Uganda 304
6.42 Age Determinations and Relations 307
6.43 Western Uganda 308
6.431 Fort Portal and Kaskere Field 309
6.432 Ndale Field 310
6.433 Central Fields of Katwe-Kikorongo and Bunyaruguru 310
6.434 Bufumbira Volcanic Field 311
6.44 Age Determinations and Relations 313
6.45 Hot Springs 313
6.5 Tanzania 313
6.51 Northern Volcanic Field 314
6.511 Older Volcanics 315
6.512 Younger Volcanics 316
6.52 Eastern Carbonatites 318
6.53 Western Carbonatites 319
6.54 Rungwe Volcanic Field and Southwestern Carbonatites 319
6.55 Kimberlites 322
6.56 Hot Springs 324
6.57 Age Determinations and Relations 325
6.6 Kenya 325
6.61 Petrology 327
6.62 Western Flank 328
6.621 Oligocene 328
6.622 Miocene 328
6.623 Late Miocene-Pliocene 331
6.624 Quaternary 332
6.63 Eastern Flank 333
6.631 Oligocene 333
6.632 Miocene 333
6.633 Pliocene 336
6.634 Quaternary 337
6.64 NIedian Rift 338
6.641 Turkana 338
6.642 Baringo 339
6.643 Nakuru-Naivasha 339
6.644 Magadi 342
6.65 I(avirondo Rift 343
6.66 Hot Springs and Fumaroles 345
6.67 Other Mesozoic-Cenozaic Igneous Rocks 345
Em. Cenozoic of the East African Rift System (EARS) (TH. SCHLÜTER) 347
7.1 Sedimentation and Environment 347
7.11 Introduction 347
7.12 Gregory Rift 352
7.121 Lake Turkana Basin 352
7.122 Chalbi Basin 357
7.123 Suguta Basin 358
7.124 Lake Baringo and Lake Bogoria Basins 359
7.125 Lake Naivasha-Elmenteita-Nakuru Basin 362
7.126 Lake Magadi-Lake Natron Basin 363
7.127 Lake Manyara Basin 369
7.128 Olduvai 371
7.129 Laetoli 374
7.1210 Lake Eyasi Basin 376
7.13 Western Rift 376
7.131 Lake Albert Basin 376
7.132 Lake Edward and Lake George Basins 378
7.133 Lake Tanganyika Basin 380
7.134 Lake Rukwa Basin 381
7.135 Lake Malawi (Nyasa) Basin 382
7.14 Lake Victoria Basin 383
7.141 Geological Setting 383
7.142 Lake Victoria 384
7.2 Biostratigraphy and Palaeontology 386
7.21 Mode of Fossilisation in the EARS 386
7.22 Stromatolites 388
7.23 Diatoms 390
7.24 Macroflora and Palynomorpha 391
7.25 Mollusca 392
7.26 Arthropoda 393
7.27 Vertebrata 394
7.271 Pisces 394
7.272 Amphibia and Reptilia 395
7.273 Aves 395
7.274 Mammalia (except Hominoidea) 396
7.275 Fossil Record of Hominoidea in the EARS 403
7.28 Trace Fossils 409
8. References 411
9. Subject Index 463
10. Index of Fossils 471
11. Localities Index 475